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The growth of online learning, enabled by the availability on the Internet of different forms of didactic materials such as MOOCs and Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), in turn, increases the relevance of personalized instructions for students in an adaptive learning environment. There are increasing interests as well as many challenges in the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques in educational settings to provide adaptive learning content to learners. Knowledge assessment is necessary for providing an adaptive learning environment. A student model serves as a fundamental building block of knowledge assessment in an adaptive learning environment. This paper intends to review the development of dominant families of student models with psychometric theory in early educational research, recent adaptations, and advances with machine learning and deep learning techniques. Our review covers not …