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Ongoing changes in Earth's atmosphere and global climate change will have profound effects on future forest distribution and composition, as well as on the organisms that live and depend on forests. It is anticipated that due to increased stress, trees will become more susceptible to insects and diseases. At the same time, changes in temperature and precipitation regimes will cause alterations in the lifecycles of insects and diseases, increasing their host ranges and virulence, and becoming important drivers of change in forest ecosystems. In addition to these effects, forest health is threatened by invasive species. Accelerated global trade will increase the likelihood of cross-continental introduction of insects and pathogens, as well as plants and animals alien to native ecosystems, causing transformation and economic loss in forests already stressed by climate change. Forest resistance to climate-induced …