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Recent experimental studies have shown that wireless links in real sensor networks can be extremely unreliable, deviating to a large extent from the idealized perfect-reception-within-range models used in common network simulation tools. Previously proposed geographic routing protocols commonly employ a maximum-distance greedy forwarding technique that works well in ideal conditions. However, such a forwarding technique performs poorly in realistic conditions as it tends to forward packets on lossy links. We identify and illustrate this weak-link problem and the related distance-hop trade-off, whereby energy efficient geographic forwarding must strike a balance between shorter, high-quality links, and longer lossy links. The study is done for scenarios with and without automatic repeat request (ARQ).

Based on an analytical link loss model, we study the distance-hop trade-off via mathematical analysis and …