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Figure-Ground Organization (FGO) refers to finding regions and contours in a 2D image that correspond to 3D objects in a visual scene. Establishing FGO is difficult because there is not enough information in a 2D image to prevent ambiguity. The visual system (and any model) must use a priori simplicity constraints (aka priors) to eliminate these ambiguities. Doing this requires solving two problems, specifically:(i) discovering the nature of the priors, and (ii) developing operations to combine these priors with the image data. Most prior researchers assumed that because FGO was a 2-dimensional problem, 2D priors and 2D computations should be used. But, 2D priors can never convert an ill-posed problem into a well-posed problem because multiple 2D groupings and segmentations exist for any given 2D image. Not surprisingly, this approach has never worked. We treated FGO as a 3D problem and have made …