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Objectives

The objective was to examine the evidence to determine the optimal management of phantom limb pain in the preoperative and postoperative phase of amputations.

Methods

Trials were identified by a systematic search of MEDLINE, review articles, and references of relevant trials from the period 1966–1999, including only English-language articles. Included trials involved a control group, any intervention, and reported phantom pain as an outcome.

Results

Twelve trials were identified, including 375 patients whose follow-ups ranged in duration from 1 week to 2 years. Only three randomized, controlled studies with parallel groups and three randomized crossover trials were identified. Eight trials examined treatment of acute phantom pain, including epidural treatments (three trials), regional nerve blocks (three trials), treatment with calcitonin (one trial), and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (one …