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Three philosophical views of people–environment relations are examined. The minimalist view assumes that physical settings play a minor or negligible role in facilitating the goals and aspirations of their users. The instrumental perspective views physical settings as “tools” for supporting individual productivity and organizational effectiveness—as the physical means for achieving key behavioral and economic goals. In contrast to the instrumental view, much recent research reflects a spiritual orientation in which physical settings are viewed not as tools, but as ends in themselves—as contexts in which important human values can be cultivated. Key points of contention among these perspectives are discussed, including the growing tensions between technological development and questions of human value; contradictions between instrumental and symbolic functions of environments; and the trend toward …