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'In using this term, we do not intend to venture anything especially controversial about the actual or appropriate grounds of judicial decisions. As will be clear, we measure" ideology" by the political affiliation of the appointing president. 2 See, eg, Jeffrey Rosen, Obstruction of Judges, NY Times, Aug. 11, 2002,? 6 (Magazine). at 38 (emphasizing that appellate court judges are required to apply United States Supreme Court precedents through reasoned argument). 3 See Frank B. Cross, Decisionmaking in the US Courts of Appeals, 91 Cal. L. Rev. 1457, 1514 (2003)(reporting empirical finding that law strongly disciplines judicial judgments).