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The history of bilingual education in the United States has shifted between tolerance and repression depending on politics, the economy, and the size of the immigrant population. Languages other than English have been (and continue to be) primarily seen as a problem to be remediated by the schools. However, the massive increase in students whose primary language is not English (today more than one in five) and who perform at exceptionally low levels in the nation’s schools has once again provoked discussion about the most effective way to educate them. Research has accumulated showing a clear advantage for “maintenance” dual language and bilingual programs over English-only or transitional programs with respect to achievement, attainment, and a number of other outcomes. Nonetheless, many challenges remain to implementing such programs on