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BACKGROUND [0002] In recent years, natural materials have gained in notoriety for their use in engineering applications as sus tainable alternatives. This interest has not eluded tissue engineering, which requires scaffolds with complex archi tectures, low-cost, and scalability to transition from the benchtop to the clinic. Plant-based materials offer such properties. Like mammalian tissue, plant tissue is composed of hierarchical structures. Of note is the similarity in mam malian and plant vascular architecture. While some decel lularized plants have been investigated as scaffolds to dem onstrate perfusion of plant vasculature by mammalian endothelial cells and cardiomyocytes, such plant tissues require steps such as decellularization and/or functionaliza tion prior to use. Furthermore, bioactivity and immunoge nicity of plant materials with mammalian/human cells and tissues varies widely among different plant …