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THE CHALLENGES FROM INFORMALITY: One of the greatest challenges for climate change adaptation is how to build resilience for the billion urban dwellers who are estimated to live in what are termed informal settlements. These settlements are concentrated in urban centres in low-and middle-income nations. They ha e ee uilt outside the fo al s ste of la sad egulatio s that are meant to ensure resilient structures, settlements and systems. Those who live in informal settle e ts ad those ho oki the i fo al eoo fo a iti al pa t of ea h it s eoo. But the a ot fi d fo al housi g that the a affo d. So, they live in settlements that are outside the formal system of regulations for recording land acquisition and for acquiring legal land tenure; also, for getting permission to develop buildings. They are outside the rules and regulations on land-use, buildings and infrastructure and service provision. Most (but not all) are on land that is illegally occupied. Most do not receive the infrastructure and services that should be provided in urban contexts such as reliable, safe water piped to homes, good provision within the household for sanitation, paved roads and paths, storm and surface drains and connection to electricity grids. Most residents of informal settlements also rely on informal services and informal employment.

ELEVATING RISKS: Many informal settlements are on land sites at high risk from flooding and landslides; these sites are chosen by their residents because they are less likely to be evicted as the land is unattractive to developers. Most housing structures in informal settlements are poor quality. The result is that most informal settlements concentrate high levels …